EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

                             EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

THE (LATER) CHALUKYAS

Overview

ü  The later Chalukyas, ruled south ADntral India including Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in the 10^th-12^th centuries AD.

ü  The earlier Chalukyas ruled in the 6^th century from Badami.

ü   The later Chalukyas were divided into two contemporaneous kingdoms:

o   Western Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani (Karnataka)

o   Eastern Chalukyas who ruled from Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)

ü  Both the Western Chalukyas and Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami. In a sense they were cousins, but they were in conflict with each other.

ü  The Eastern Chalukyas were allied with the Cholas, and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was absorbed into the Chola Empire in the 12^th century. On the other hand, the Western Chalukyas were bitterly opposed to the Cholas, and the two were in constant conflict for over two centuries.

WESTERN CHALUKYAS

ü  The Western Chalukyas ruled most of the western Deccan between the 10^th and 12^th centuries.

ü  The Western Chalukyas came into prominenAD under Tailapa II after overthrowing the Rashtrakutas in 973 AD.

ü  The capital of the Western Chalukyas was Kalyani (Karnataka). Their territories included most of Karnataka, almost all of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh.

ü  The most important ruler of the Western Chalukyas was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 AD)

ü  The Western Chalukyas were in constant conflict with the Cholas over control of the fertile region of Vengi in Andhra Pradesh.

ü  A series of defeats by the more powerful Cholas gradually weakened the kingdom, with its territory shrinking significantly in the mid 11^th century (c. 1050 AD).

ü  The continuous wars with the Cholas eventually exhausted the Western Chalukyas, and the dynasty was overthrown by feudatories including the Hoysalas in 1190 AD.

Society under the Western Chalukyas

ü  The Western Chalukyas followed the administrative and social set up of the preceding Rashtrakuta kingdom to a large extent.

ü  They minted punch marked gold coins, called Pagodas, with Kannada and Nagari legends.

ü  Merchants organised themselves into large guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars. Powerful guilds included the

o   Manigramam (Cochin)

o   Nagarattar (Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu)

o   Anjuvannam (Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu)

o   Ainnurruvar (Aihole, Karnataka) – this was the most powerful guild

ü  These trade guilds fiercely protected their trade interests and recorded their achievements in inscriptions known as Prasasti.

ü  Trade ties flourished with Magadha, Nepal, Cambodia, Persia, China and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.

ü  Important trade items included precious stones like diamond, emeralds, topaz etc and spices such as cardamom, saffron and cloves.

ü  With the rise of the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas, patronage for Jainism declined. Buddhism had already been in decline in South India since the 8^th century following the preachings of the Adi Shankara.

ü  Jainism gradually declined and only flourished in two regions: Shravanabelagola and Kadambahalli, both in Karnataka.

ü  The only places of Buddhist worship that remained were Dambal and Balligavi, both in Karnataka.

Literature under the Western Chalukyas

ü  The Western Chalukyas patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature.

ü  Ranna (c. 980 AD) wrote in Kannada the Saahasabheema Vijayam which narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana, and the Ajitha Purana which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankara Ajithanatha.

ü  A unique and native form of Kannada literature called Vachanas developed at this time. They were written by mystics who expressed their devotion to God in simple language to be understood by the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are famous among them.

ü  The Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadeva Charita in Sanskrit, which recounts the life of Vikaramaditya VI.

ü  The Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara wrote the Mitakshara, a treatise on law. The composition, which was based on earlier writings, was later translated into English by the British and given currency in the Indian court system.

The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi (Karnataka) was built in 1112 AD by Mahadeva, a general in the army of the Western Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI.

ü  The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was mainly in the Karnata Dravida style, drawing from the Dravida style.

ü  The Western Chalukya architecture formed a link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 7^th century and the Hoysala architecture of the 12^th century.

ü  The vimana of their temples is a compromise between the plain style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative details of the Hoysalas.

ü  The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was conADntrated around the Tungabhadra region of ADntral Karnataka.

ü  Notable temples include Mahadevi Temple at Itagi, Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and Kallesvara Temple at Bagali.

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

ü  The Eastern Chalukyas ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh from the 7^th to the 12^th ADnturies AD.

ü  The capital city was Vengi (Andhra Pradesh).

ü  The Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), but outlived them by many generations.

ü  The Eastern Chalukyas developed as an independent kingdom following the death of Pulakesin II in 642 AD.

ü  Much weaker than their distant cousins and rivals the Western Chalukyas, the Eastern Chalukyas formed a close marital alliance with the Cholas.

ü  The fertile Vengi region of the Eastern Chalukyas was the principal cause of continuous conflict between the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas.

ü  Following generations of intermarriage, the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was merged into the Chola Empire in 1130 AD.

ü  The Eastern Chalukyas were instrumental in the development of Telugu literature

ü  Nannaya Bhatta’s Mahabharata is the oldest available literary work in Telugu (mid 11^th ADntury).

THE HOYSALAS

Overview

ü  The Hoysalas ruled Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu between the 11^th and 14^th centuries.

ü  The capital city of the Hoysalas was Belur, but later moved to Haleibidu.

ü  The Hoysalas are noted especially for their magnificent temple architecture.

ü  Hoysalas were also instrumental in encouraging Kannada literature.

ü  The Hoysalas rose to prominence under Vishnuvardhana (c. 1120 AD), however were still subordinate to the Western Chalukyas at the time.

ü  Overthrowing the Western Chalukyas, the Hoysalas became an independent kingdom under Veera Ballala II (c. 1187-1193 AD).

ü  Among contemporary South Indian kingdoms, the Hoysalas were the last to fall to Muslim invasions from the north. They resisted invasions by Alla-ud-din-Khilji’s general Malik Kafur until 1343, and the kingdom was then absorbed into the newly forming Vijayanagara Empire.

The Somathapura Temple at Somanathapura (Karnataka) was built in 1268 AD by the Hoysala ruler Narasimha III.

Economy, society and administration

ü  The Hoysala economy, society and administration pretty much followed that of its predecessors.

ü  Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas,                             --ministers for foreign affairs were called Sandhivigrahi,                      -chief treasurer Mahabhandari.,                                                                                                      -Chief of army was Dandanayaka and                                               -Chief Justice was Dharmidhakari.

ü  Administrative divisions included Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha in desADnding order of their size.

ü  An elite and well trained forAD of personal bodyguards called Garudas protected the royal family at all times. Their loyalty was so complete that they committed suicide upon the master’s death. Hero stones erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars

ü  The Hoysala rulers were mainly Vaishnavites. Hoysala period is known for the preachings of Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhavacharya, well known Vaishnava saints

Literature

ü  Although Sanskrit remained popular, Kannada literature was particularly favoured by the Hoysalas.

ü  In 1209, Jaina scholar Janna wrote Yashodhacharite, a story of a king who intends to sacrifice two young boys to a local deity.

ü  Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin, wrote Jagannatha Viajaya, relating the life of Lord Krishna up to his battle with demon Banasura.

ü  Harihara, a Vaishnava, wrote Girijakalyana which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva to Parvati.

ü  In Sanskrit, Madhavacharya wrote the Rigbhasya on Brahmasutras, a logical explanation of the Vedas.

Architecture

ü  The Hoysalas are best known for their architecture, especially in building temples.

ü  The Hoysala architectural style, called Karnata Dravida, was an offshoot of the Chalukya style, which borrowed from the Dravida style.

ü  A prominent feature of Hoysala architecture is attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. This high level of detail was achieved using soapstone for construction.

ü  Important temples include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura.

Temple	Location	Built by	Notes
Chennakesava Temple	Belur (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana (c. 1117 AD)	Deity is Vishnu Unusually large compared to other Hoysala temples
Hoysaleswara Temple	Halebidu (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana	Deity is Shiva Famous for extremely articulate and detailed sculptures Contains a Garuda pillar in honour of Kuruva Lakshma, bodyguard of Veera Ballala II
Kesava Temple	Somanathapura (Karnataka)	Narasimha III (c. 1268 AD)	Deity is Vishnu

THE (LATER) PANDYAS

ü  The Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, are considered to be among the oldest Indian dynasties.

ü  The Pandyas are mentioned as the hosts of the third Tamil Sangam (3^rd ADntury BC-3^rd ADntury AD), and as hosts of the supposedly even earlier first two Sangams.

ü  However, this article only deals with the later Pandyas, who rose to prominenAD in the 13^th ADntury, and about whom concrete literary, archaeological and epigraphical evidenAD is available.

ü  Throughout their existence, the capital city of the Pandyas was Madurai.

ü  After several centuries of submission under the Cholas, the Pandyas rose to prominence under the Maravarman Sundara Pandyan in the 13^th century (1216-1238 AD). In 1217 AD, Maravarman Pandyan defeated the Chola monarch Rajaraja III, thereby ending ADnturies of Chola suzerainty in southern India.

ü  At its peak, the Pandyan kingdom extended from the Godavari in the north to northern Sri Lanka in the south.

ü  The Pandyan kingdom reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1250-1268 AD) who dissolved the Chola Empire, which had already been in decline.

ü  Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was given the title of Pon Veindha Perumal
for gold plating the roofs of the Chidambaram Temple and the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam. He also built a gate at the Srirangam Temple engraving the names of all four dynasties of Tamil Nadu i.e. Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, recognising the contribution of each.

ü  The Pandyan kingdom was disestablished in 1311 following defeat by Malik Kafur, the general of Alla-ud-din-Khilji, who was on an expedition to subjugate South India.

ü  The city of Madurai passed to the Madurai Sultanate, established in 1335 AD by Sayyid Jalal-ud-din Ahsan. However, the Sultanate itself was dissolved by the rising Vijayanagara Empire in 1375 AD.

ü  Following this, Madurai was ruled by Nayaks, governors of the Vijayanagara Empire. Following the collapse of Vijayanagar in 1646 AD, the Nayaks ruled Madurai independently until the arrival of the British in 1736 AD.

THE (LATER) CHOLAS

Overview

ü  The Cholas, along with the Cheras and Pandyas, are considered to be among the oldest and longest dynasties in Indian history. They ruled southern India in the later parts of the first millennium BC (Sangam period), and supposedly in even earlier pre-historical epochs as mentioned in ancient Tamil literature.

ü  However, this article deals only with the later Cholas, about whom concrete literary, epigraphical and archaeological evidence has been established.

ü  The Cholas ruled large parts of Southern India including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Karnataka from the 9^th to 13^th centuries AD.

ü  The lasting legacies of the Cholas include some of the most important works of Tamil literature and magnificent temples and monuments.

ü  The Cholas are also known for their powerful navy with blue-water capabilities, that allowed them to project power as far away as Indonesia.

ü  The capital of the Cholas were Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

The Chola Empire at its peak under Rajendra Chola (c. 1030 AD)

ü  The heartland of the Chola territory was the fertile Kaveri valley centered around Tanjore.

ü  The Cholas came into prominence in the 9^th century AD under Vijayalaya Chola (c. 850 AD)

ü  Important Chola kings include Parantaka Chola (c. 925 AD), Sundara Chola (c. 950 AD), Rajaraja Chola (c. 985-1014 AD), Rajendra Chola (c. 1012-1044 AD) and Kulothunga Chola (1070-1120 AD).

ü  The Chola empire stretched from Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna basin in the north.

ü  Additionally, large parts of north eastern India and South East Asia were conquered by Rajendra Chola, and were under Chola suzerainty. These included the Ganga-Hoogly-Damodar basin, Indo-China (Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam), Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia.

ü  Rajendra Chola, the most successful Chola emperor, took on titles such as Gangaikonda Cholan and Mudikonda Cholan.

ü  To commemorate his successful campaigns to the Ganges, Rajendra Chola founded the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which served as the capital for over 200 years until the dissolution of the Chola empire in the 13^th century.

ü  Following generations of inter-marriage between the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas (of Vengi), the Chalukya prince Rajendra Chalukya ascended the Chola throne under the name Kulothunga Chola (1070 AD). The line of Chola rulers following Kulothunga Chola are also known as Chalukya-Cholas

The Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola, is the largest and tallest temple in India. The main Vimana towers over 16 storeys high, and is topped by a single granite stone weighing over 81 tonnes.

ü  The Chola Empire was the first to bring all of south India under a common government.

ü  The capital of the Cholas was Tanjore, and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

ü  The Cholas pioneered a system of highly organised governance where a careful balance was achieved between central control and local independence in administrative matters.

ü  Every village in the empire was a self-governing unit.

ü  Several villages made up a Korram, several Korrams made up a Valanadu, and several Valanadus made up a Mandalam (i.e. province).

ü  The Cholas also pioneered the concept of immediately recording oral orders given by king in written form. A special official, Tirumandira Olai Nayagan, was tasked specifically with recording these oral orders in palm leaf manuscripts.

ü  The Chola empire had extensive trade relations with Sri Vijaya (Indonesia), China (Tang Dynasty) and the Abassid Caliphate (Baghdad).

ü  The Cholas maintained a powerful and well-organised Navy, that it used for power projection, piracy control and trade convoy escorting.

Art and Architecture under the Cholas

ü  The period of the Cholas was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of Dravidian art and architecture.

ü  The most famous aspects of Chola art and architecture includes their exquisite bronze sculptures and massive stone temples.

ü  The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Tanjore, built by Rajaraja Chola (c. 1002 AD), is considered to be the pinnacle of Chola architecture. The temple, the largest and tallest in India, is also the first complete granite structure in the world.

ü  The UNESCO World Heritage Site Great Living Chola Temples consists of three temples constructed by the Cholas:

o   Brihadeeswarar Temple (Tanjore)

o   Airavateswarar Temple (Darasuram)

o   Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (Gangaikonda Cholapuram)

ü  The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes, many of which are housed in museums around the world. Among the most famous Chola bronzes is that of Nataraja, depicting Siva in the cosmic dance of creation and destruction.

The Great Living Chola Temples

The Great Living Chola Temples are a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Temple	Location	Date/Built by	Notes
Brihadeeswarar Temple	Tanjore (Tamil Nadu)	c. 1006 AD/Rajaraja Chola	Largest and tallest temple in India Served as the royal temple of the Cholas being the site of important royal ceremonies Also known as Peruvudaiyar Temple
Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple	Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Tamil Nadu)	c. 1025 AD/Rajendra Chola
Airavateswarar Temple	Darasuram (Tamil Nadu)	12th century AD/Rajaraja Chola II

Literature under the Cholas

ü  The Chola period is noted for the flourishing Tamil literature during this period

The Airavateswar Temple at Darasuram was built by Rajaraja Chola II. The temple, whose sanctum is in the form of a chariot, is known for the exquisite details of sculptures.

ü  Important epigraphical inscriptions have been found in the various temples constructed during this period.

ü  The most famous works of literature include

o   Ramavataram by the poet Kamban, which describes the story of the Ramayana.

o   Kalingattubarani by Ottakuttan, which describes the conquest of Kalinga (Orissa) by Kulothunga Chola.

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

Overview

ü  The Rashtrakutas ruled large parts of southern and central India from the 6^th to the 10^th centuries AD.

ü  The Rashtrakutas emerged as a power after overthrowing the Chalukya Kiritivarman II in c. 753 AD.

ü  The Rashtrakutas were based around the Gulbarga region of modern Karnataka.

ü  The capital city of the Rashtrakutas was Manykheta (Karnataka).

ü  The Rashtrakutas were in continuous conflict with the Palas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries.

Extent and lineage

The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.

ü  The Rashtrakuta dynasty was established by Dantidurga who overthrew the Chalukyas in 753 AD.

ü  At the height of their power, the Rashtrakutas kingdom included all of Karnataka and Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh.

ü  The most important kings of the Rashtrakutas were Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 AD), Govinda III (793-814 AD) and Amogavarsha (800-878 AD).

Administration, economy and society

ü  The Rashtrakutas issued coins in silver and gold.

ü  The various currency denominations were Suvarnas (silver) and Drammas (gold) weighing 65 grains, Kalanju (48 grains), Gadyanaka (96 grains), Kasu (15 grains), Manjati (2.5 grains) and Akkam (1.25 grains).

Literature

ü  Kannada literature attained prominence and importance during the reign of the Rashtrakutas.

ü  Kavirajamarga by king Amogavarsha is the earliest available literary work in Kannada. Amoghavarsha also wrote the Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit.

ü  Adipurana, a life history of the first Jain Tirthankara Rishabadeva in Kannada, was written by Pampa (c. 950 AD). Pampa also wrote the Vikaramarjuna Vijaya, based on the Mahabharata story. Pampa is recognised as one of the most famous Kannada writers.

ü  Another Jain writer, Sri Ponna, wrote the history of the 16^th Jain Tirthankara Shantinatha, entitled Shantipurana. His other writings in Kannada included Bhuvanaika-Karamabhyudaya, Jinaksaramale and Gataprataigata

ü  Trikrama (c. 915 AD) wrote the Nalachampu, Damayanthi Katha and Madalaschampu in Kannada.

Art and Architecture

ü  The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora (Maharashtra) was constructed by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (c. 8^th ADntury AD). The Kailasanatha Temple was carved out of a single rock, and is known for its vertical excavation i.e. it was carved starting from the top and proceeding downwards. The Kailasantha Temple is considered to be the pinnacle of Rashtrakuta architecture.

ü  The Rashtrakutas also built some of the sculptures at the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai.

ü  Other famous Rashtrakuta architecture include the Kasiviswanatha Temple and Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka and the Navalinga Temple at Kuknur, Karnataka.

ü  The architectural style used by the Rashtrakutas was primarily Dravidian.

THE PALAS

Overview

ü  The Palas ruled Bengal and much of northern India from the 8^th to the 12^th centuries AD.

ü  The capital cities of the Palas were Pataliputra (Bihar) and Gaur (West Bengal).

ü  The Palas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries.

ü  The Palas patronized the Buddhist universities at Vikramashila and Nalanda. The Nalanda University reached its height during the reign of the Palas.

ü  Dharmapala constructed the Somapura Mahavira, the biggest Buddhist Vihara in Indian subcontinent. The Somapura Mahavira, located at Paharpur (Bangladesh) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985).

Extent and lineage

The Somapura Mahavihara, built by the Pala emperor Dharmapala, is the largest Buddhist vihara in the Indian subcontinent. It is located in Paharpur, Bangladesh.

ü  The Pala dynasty was established by Gopala (750-770 AD) who came to power in a democratic election. This event is said to be the first democratic elections in India since the time of the Mahajanapadas.

ü  The Pala kingdom reached its peak under Dharmapala (770-810) and Devapala (810-850).

ü  At its height, the Pala kingdom extended from Assam in the east to Kandahar in the west, and Punjab in the north to the Deccan in the south.

Literature

ü  The earliest development of proto-Bangla language was during the Pala reign.

ü  The Buddhist texts Charyapada were the earliest form of Bangla language. The Charyapada are a collection of mystical poems from the Tantric school of Buddhism.

ü  The Buddhist teacher Atisha Dipankara Shrijana wrote over 200 books, primarily translations of Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts into Tibetan.

ü  Sandhyakar Nandi wrote the famous epic poem Ramacharitam in Sanskrit (c. late 11^th ADntury). The Ramacharitam simultaneously narrates the story of the Ramayana as well as events in Bengal during the Pala reign in a poem containing 215 verses.

PRATIHARAS

Overview

ü  The Pratiharas ruled much of northern India from the 6^th to the 11^th centuries AD

ü  Also known as Gurjara Pratiharas, they are associated with the Gujjar tribe and are considered to be Rajputs clans.

ü  The capital city of the Pratiharas were Kannauj and Avanti.

ü  The Pratiharas used Sanskrit, Marwari and Malwi as official languages.

ü  The Pratiharas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Palas for more than two centuries.

ü  The Pratiharas are credited with repulsing Arab invasions in western India in the 7^th and 8^th centuries AD.

ü  The Pratiharas weakened over a period of time, due to having to fight the Palas and Rashtrakutas as well as Arab armies from the west.

Extent and lineage

ü  The Pratihara dynasty is said to have been founded by Harichandra in the 6^th century.

ü  Nagabhata I (730-756 AD) was the first important ruler. He defeated the advancing Arab armies at the Battle of Rajasthan (738 AD).

ü  Vatsaraja (775-805 AD) sought to capture Kannauj, which brought them into conflict with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. His attempts were unsuccessful.

ü  Nagabhata II (805-833 AD) rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath which had been earlier destroyed by Junaid of Sind.

Conflict with Arab invaders

The Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas were in continuous conflict for over two ADnturies. The focal point of the conflict was the Kannauj Triangle.

ü  The Sind region had been captured by Muhammad bin Qasim in 710 AD.

ü  His successor and Governor of Sind, Junaid, led an invasion into western and northern India in 738 AD.

ü  Junaid was defeated by the Rashtrakutas at Navsari (Gujarat) and by the Pratihara king Nagabhata I at Avanti.

ü  Nagabhata pursued the Arab armies as far as the Indus river ensuring that the Arabs remained on the other side of the Indus.

ü  The Pratiharas acted as a buffer against Arab armies from the west for the next two centuries and are credited with checking Arab advances into India.

THE KANNAUJ TRIANGLE

ü  The Rashtrakutas, Palas and Pratiharas were locked in continuous conflict between the 8^th and 10^th centuries AD.

ü  This tripartite struggle was primarily over control of Kannauj and the fertile Gangetic plains around it.

ü  The earliest known reference to the struggle is from the late 8^th century: Dharmapala defeated the Pratihara king Indraraja and captured Kannauj, only to be defeated by the Pratihara Vatsaraja, who was himself defeated by the Rashtrakuta Dhruva. Dharmapala retrieved Kannauj from the Rashtrakutas, but Kannauj was once again conquered by the Pratihara Nagabhata.

ü  The area around Kannauj, called the Kannauj triangle kept changing hand throughout the tripartite struggle.

THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI

The early Chalukyas (6^th-8^th centuries AD) of Badami.

Overview

Chalukya territories under Pulakesi II (c. 630 AD)

ü  The Chalukyas ruled large parts of central and southern India between the 6^th and 12^th centuries.

ü  The Chalukyas consisted of three related dynasties

o   Badami Chalukyas – earliest dynasty, 6^th-8^th centuries AD

o   Eastern Chalukyas – 6^th – 11^th centuries

o   Western Chalukyas – 10^th-12^th centuries

ü  Chalukya rule was concentrated around present day Karnataka.

ü  The Chalukyas were the earliest known proponents of Kannada and were an important contributor to the growth of Kannada language.

ü  Inscriptions from Chalukya period are mainly in Kannada and Sanskrit.

About the Chalukyas of Badami

ü  The Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesi I in 543 AD.

ü  The capital of the Chalukya kingdom was Vatapi (modern Badami).

ü  This family of early Chalukyas is known as Chalukyas of Badami.

ü  The Chalukyas of Badami ruled over all of Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh.

About Pulakesi II

ü  Pulakesi II, the son of Pulakesi I, was the most famous Chalukya emperor.

ü  Pulakesi II defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada and halted the southern expansion of Harsha’s kingdom.

ü  Pulakesi II also extended the Chalukya kingdom up to the northern portions of the Pallava kingdom in the south.

ü  Pulakesi II is famous for the Aihole inscription, which gives details regarding his defeat of Harsha.

Chalukyas and Pallavas

The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka

ü  The Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas (of Kanchipuram) were in constant and continuous conflict for more than 200 years.

ü  Pulakesi II defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I and occupied large parts of northern Pallava kingdom.

ü  However, Mahendravarman’s son Narasimhavarman I defeated Pulakesi II, annexed large parts of the Chalukya kingdom and occupied Badami temporarily.

ü  This was again reversed by Chalukya Vikramaditya II who defeated Pallava Nandivarman II and carved a Kannada inscription on the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.

Architecture under the Chalukyas of Badami

ü  The architecture of Badami Chalukyas marked an important phase in development of South Indian architecture.

ü  Their style of architecture is also called Karnata Dravida architecture.

ü  Most of their architectural work is concentrated in small area of the Chalukyan heartland in northern Karnataka.

ü  The earliest phase of architecture consists of cave temples at Aihole and Badami (6^th century). These temples had plan exteriors but exceptionally well finished interiors including pillared verandah, columned hall etc.

ü  The second phase was in Aihole and Badami (7^th century).
Important temples include: Lad Khan Temple (Aihole), and Meguti Jain Temple, Durga Temple, Huccimalli Gudi Temple at Badami.

ü  The final and mature phase was in Pattadakal and Badami (8^th ADntury). Famous temples include: Bhutanatha Temples at Badami, Sangameswara, Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temples at Pattadakal.

ü  Chalukya architecture is known for its fusion of nagara and dravida architectural styles.

ü  Pattadakal is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

THE PALLAVAS

Pallava territories under Narasimhavarman I (c. 650 AD)

Overview

ü  The Pallavas ruled northern Tamil Nadu and all of Andhra Pradesh between the 3^rd and 9^th centuries AD

ü  The capital of the Pallavas was Kanchipuram.

ü  The most famous kings of the Pallavas were Mahendravarman I (600-630 AD) and Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD).

ü  Throughout their reign, the Pallavas were in constant and continuous conflict with the Chalukyas of Badami as well the Cholas and Pandiyas to the south.

ü  The Pallavas are most famous for their patronage of architecture (eg at Mahabalipuram).

ü  Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule.

ü  Pallava Simhavishnu, along with Pandya Kadungon, are credited with ending the much disliked Kalabhra rule in Tamil Nadu c. 600 AD.

ü  The official language of the Pallavas was Tamil, but they patronised Sanskrit and Telugu as well.

About Mahendravarman I (600-630 AD)

ü  Mahendravarman I was a great patron of literature, art and architecture.

ü  He is the author of the Sanskrit play Mattivilasa Prahasana.

ü  He was initially a Jain, but reconverted to Hinduism under the Saiva saint Appar.

ü  Mahendravarman I is considered to be the pioneer of rock cut architecture among the Pallavas.

ü  He also contributed greatly to the Sanskrit dramatised dance worship Kuttiyattam.

ü  He is also credited with inventing the seven string veena called Parivadhini.

About Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD)

ü  Narasimhavarman I was the most famous of Pallava rulers.

ü  He avenged his father’s defeat at the hands of the Chalukyas by defeating Pulakesi II in 642 AD and occupying Badami (Vatapi) temporarily. He then assumed the title Vatapikondan.

ü  Narasimhavarman I was also known by the name Mammallan (great wrestler).

ü  The Chinese Buddhist traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during his reign.

ü  The majority of the monuments at Mahabalipuram were constructed during the reign of Narasimhavarman I.

About the monuments at Mahabalipuram

The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, the largest open air rock-relief in the world

ü  The known structures at Mahabalipuram were built by Narasimhavarman I.

ü  The structures are mostly rock-cut and monolithic.

ü  The monuments are Mahabalipuram have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1984).

ü  There are four main categories of monuments at Mahabalipuram

o   Ratha Temples: temples in the form of chariots. There are five such structures making the Pancha Rathas.

o   Mandapas: cave sanctuaries covered with bas-reliefs. There are 11 such structures.

o   Rock relief: sculpted bas-relief on rocks.

o   Temples: temples cut out of rock.

List of important structures at Mahabalipuram

Structure	Category	Notes
Decent of the Ganges (Arjuna’s Penance)	Bas-relief	Giant open-air relief carved out of monolithic rock Largest open-air rock relief in the world Interpreted to describe the descent of the river Ganges to earth (or) to describe the penance of Arjuna to receive a boon from Siva Also known as Bhagiratha’s Penance
Varaha Cave Temple	Rock-cut cave temple	Small monolithic temple Other cave temples include Krishna Cave Temple, Pancha Pandava Cave Temple
Five Rathas	Rock-cut temple	The Pancha Rathas consist of five temples, each in the shape of a chariot The temples were all carved out of a single large piece of stone
Shore Temple	Structural temple	Built with blocks of granite Sits on the shoreline of the Bay of Bengal Unlike other temples at Mahabalipuram, this is structural not rock-cut It is the earliest important structural temple in southern India

Recent archaeological findings at Mahabalipuram

ü  There has been a long standing legend about the Seven Pagodas at Mahabalipuram, i.e. seven rock temples supposedly built on the shore. Until recently, no evidence to support the legend was found.

ü  However, the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004 disrupted the shoreline and has exposed previously sunken monuments at Mahabalipuram.

ü  The most significant development was the uncovering of a large lion statue on the shore, dated to the 7^th century.

ü  Also uncovered was a small brick structure dated to the Sangam period, before the time of the Pallavas.

ü  Following this, the ASI and the Indian Navy explored the waters off Mahabalipuram in 2005 and found remains of two temples, one cave temple and a stone wall.