VEDIC & LATER VEDIC PERIOD:
Vedic Age (1500 BC-1000 BC)
-It is generally agreed that Aryans originally lived somewhere in Steppes stretching from southern Russia to central Russia.
-The consensus of opinion is that originally they lived somewhere in the East of Alps.
- On their way to India, Aryans first appeared in Iran and a little later than 1500 BC they appeared in India.
-Kassite Inscription of about 1600 BC and Mittani Inscription of 1400 BC found in Iraq bear some Aryan names, which suggest that from Iran a branch of Aryans moved towards west.
- The Rig Veda has many things in common with the Avesta - the oldest text in Iranian language.
- Rig Veda is the earliest specimen of any Indo-European language.
-According to Rig Veda, early Aryans first settled in the region called ‘Sapta-Sindhava’ or the land of seven rivers encompassing the present East Afghanistan, Punjab and Western UP.
-Early Aryans were semi-nomadic and kept large herds of cattle.
-As they settled down in villages, they also became cultivators using ox to draw their ploughs. They were ruled by warriors, who depended upon priests to perform the rituals to protect their crops and cattle, and insure victory in war. The Indian sub-continent got its name Bharat Varsha after the Bharata tribe, which was the strongest one. During the later Vedic phase, the Aryans moved away from there.
Original Home of Aryans
| Central Asia | Max Muller |
| Tibet | Dayanand Saraswati |
| German plain | Prof. Penka |
| Pamirs | Mayor |
| Turkistan | Hurz Feld |
| Bactria | J. C. Rod |
| Steppes | Brandstein |
| Arctic Region | B.G. Tilak |
| Central India | Rajbali Pandey |
| Kashmir | L. D. Kala |
| Sapta Sindhu | A. C. Das |
Rivers mentioned in Rigveda:
| Old Name | New Name |
| Gomati | Gomal |
| Krumu | Kurram |
| Kubha | Kabul |
| Suvastu | Swat |
| Sindhu | Indus |
| Drishadvati | Ghaghar/Chitang |
| Satudri | Satluj |
| Vipas | Beas |
| Parushni | Ravi |
| Asikni | Chenab |
| Vitasta | Jhelum |
The Sun Gods
| Surya | Similar to that of the Greek God Helios. |
| Savitri | The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri. |
| Pusan | His main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle. |
| Vishnu | A relatively minor God at that time. |
Words Mentioned in Rig Veda
| Word | Times mentioned |
| Om | 1028 |
| Ashva | 315 |
| Jana | 275 |
| Gau | 176 |
| Vis | 171 |
| Brahmana | 14 |
| Kshatriya | 9 |
| Yamuna | 3 |
| Sudra | 1 |
| Vaishya | 1 |
| Rajya | 1 |
| Kulpa | 1 |
| Ganga | 1 |
| Samudra | 1 |
Metals Known
| Gold | Hiranya |
| Iron | Shyama (Krishna Ayas) |
| Copper | Ayas |
Rig Vedic Polity
-The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana. -However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal Assemblies. -Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal Assemblies. -Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. -These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. -The two most important Assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. -Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha. -Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rigvedic times. -There were a few non-monarchical states (ganas), which are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.
A Celebration of Life
-The Aryans were a wild, turbulent people and had few of the taboos prevalent in later India. -They were much addicted to inebriating drinks, of which they had at least two, soma and sura. -Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by religion. -Sura was purely secular and more potent, and was disapproved by the priestly poets. -The Aryans loved music, and played the flute, lute and harp, to the accompaniment of cymbal and drums. -People also delighted in gambling. -They enjoyed chariot races.
Rigvedic Gods
-The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. -Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. -The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. -Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spiritual upliftment or misery.
Indra
- 250 hymns are attributed to India. - He was the Aryan warlord and also controlled the weather. - Has been called Purandhar or destroyer of forts. -He was the proverbial Rain God (prajanya),responsible for causing rainfall. - He was associated with thunder and storm and bore the thunderbolt (Vajra), with which he destroyed his enemies. -He has been addressed by various names Ratheshtha, Jitendra, Somapa, Purandra, Vritrahan and Maghayan.
Varuna
-He was the upholder of Rta or cosmic order and whatever happened in the world was thought to be reflection of his desire. -As an administrator of the cosmic law (Rta), he regulated all activities in the world. -It is he who has spread out the earth and set the sun in motion. -He is therefore called the world sovereign and is also regarded at the of human morality. -His worship gives the earliest signs of Bhakti. -In every hymn for Varuna there is an appeal for forgiveness.
Agni
- About 200 hymns on the Rig Veda are attributed to Agni. -He was the intermediary between Gods and men. -He consumed the sacrificial offerings and carried them to Gods. -He dwelt in heaven in the form of lightning. -On earth he existed in many forms. - He dwelt in the domestic hearth.
Yama
-A sort of Adam - The first man to die, who became the guardian of the world of dead.
Soma
-The God of plants. -An intoxicant drink was also named Soma. –The Soma sacrifice was an important Vedic rituals. -He is the special God of Brahamans, who referred to him as their patron deity.
Later Vedic Gods
-Indra and Varuna lost their previous importance and Prajapati attained the Supreme position. -Rudra and Vishnu became more important than before. -Pushan became the God of Shudras. -Brahmin monopoly over divine knowledge was established. -An elaborate system of Yajnas developed. -Among the important ones were— Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and Vajapeya.
Other Gods
| Vayu | Wind God |
| Dyaus | Father of Heaven |
| Aditi | Mother of Surya |
| Morals | Storm spirits |
| Gandharvas | Divine musicians |
| Ashvins | Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art |
| Ribhus | Gnomes |
| Apsoras | Mistresses of Gods. |
| Rudra | An archer God,whose arose brought disease |
Rig Vedic Society
-Based on kinship, the early Aryan society was essentially tribal and egalitarian. -People owed their primary loyalty to their tribe, which was called Jana. - The family was essentially patriarchal and birth of son was desired. -The family was a large unit, indicated by a common word for son, grandson, nephew and one word for paternal and maternal grandfather. -Rashtra (kingdom) had not come into existence
The Cow
-The cow seems to be the most important form of wealth. -Most wars were fought for cows. -The term for war in Rig Veda is Gavishthi or search for cows. -Duhitri is a word for daughter, which literally means one who milks cows. -The term Aghanya, or not to be killed has been used for cow. This indicated cow’s economic importance. -Primarily a military leader, the King fought for cows and not for territories -Guests were called Goghana, which indicates that beef was offered to them. -The gift made to priests usually consisted of cows and women slaves and never of land.
Position of Women
-Women held respectable position in society. -They could attend tribal assemblies. -They took part in sacrifices alongwith their husbands. -There are no examples of child marriage and the marriageable age for girls was 16 to 17 years. -We also get evidence of widow remarriage and practice of Niyoga (levirate) in which a childless widow would co-habit with her brother-in-law until the birth of a son. -Monogamy was the established practice. -However, polygamy and polyandry were also known.
Female Deities
| Usha | Goddess of dawn. |
| Aditi | Mother of Gods |
| Prithivi | Earth Goddess. |
| Aryani | Forest Goddess |
| Saraswati | The River deity. |
Important Rituals
| Rajasuya | -The King’s influence was strengthened by rituals. -He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him. |
| Asvamedha | -A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. -The ceremony lasted for 3 days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed. |
| Vajapeya | -A King performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen (a case of match-fixing!). -The ritual lasted for 17 days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position of Raja to that of Samrat. |
Chief Priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were –
| a. Hotri | - the Invoker, he recited hymns from Rigveda. |
| b. Adhvaryu | - the executor, he rected hymns from Yajurvada. |
| c. Udgatri | - the singer, he recited hymns from Samveda. |
Social Divisions
- When the Aryans first came to India, there was no consciousness of caste, nor were the professions hereditary. -The word ‘Varna’ is used in the Rig Veda with reference to only the Aryan or Dasa having respectively, fair or dark complexion, but never with reference to the Brahmana or Rajanya (Kshatriya).
-Quadruple division of society made its formal appearance only at one place in the Tenth Mandala of Rig Veda (Purushsukta hymn). -The term Shudra is mentioned for the first time in the Tenth Mandala of Rig Veda. -The Ashrama system had not developed fully till the Later Vedic Period.
Types of Marriage
| i) Brahma: | Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same class. |
| ii) Daiva: | The father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee. |
| iii) Arsa: | A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of the dowry. |
| iv) Prajapatya: | The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price. |
| v) Gandharva: | Marriage by the consent of the two parties (love marriage). |
| vi) Asura: | Marriage in which the bride was bought from her father. It was looked down upon with disfavour by all sacred texts, though Arthashastra allows it without criticism. |
| vii) Rakshasa: | Marriage by capture, was practised especially by warriors. |
| viii) Paishacha: | Marriage by seduction. |
Of these eight forms the first four were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. Daiva marriage was considered ‘the ideal’. The other forms were looked down upon with varying degrees of disfavour. Gandharva marriage which often might amount to no more than a liaison, was surprisingly respected.
A special form of the Gandharva marriage was the Swayamvara.
Administrative Officers
| Purohita | Chief priest |
| Senani | The leader of the army. |
| Vrajapati | Officer who enjoyed authority over pasture ground. |
| Kulapas | Heads of families led by Vrajapati. |
| Gramini | Head of fitting hordes under Vrajapati. |
-There was no officer for tax collection, nor we do hear of any officer for administering justice. -Spies (Spasa) were employed to watch over anti-social activities like theft and burglary. -The chief received from people voluntary offering called Bali.
Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC)
-During the Later Vedic Age the Aryans thoroughly subdued the fertile plains watered by Yamuna, Ganges and Sadanira. -They crossed the Vindhyas and settled in the Deccan, to the north of Godavari.
Political Organisation
-During the Later Vedic Age popular assemblies lost much of their importance and royal power increased at their cost. - In other words, chiefdom gave way to kingdom. -Formation of large kingdoms made the king more powerful. -For all practical purposes, kingship became hereditary. -The Vidhata completely disappeared. -Sabha and Samiti continued to hold ground, but their character changed and they were no more representative of the will of the majority. -Women were no longer permitted to attend the assemblies which came to be dominated by nobles and Brahamanas. -The term rashtra indicating ‘territory’ first appealed in this period.
Gotra
-The institution of Gotra appeared in the Later Vedic Age. - Literally meaning cowpen, Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor. -The Gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. -People began to practice Gotra exogamy. In other words, marriage between persons belonging to the same Gotra was prohibited.
Regions and Kings
| Eastern King | Samrat |
| Western King | Suvrat |
| Northern King | Viral |
| Southern king | Bhoja |
| King of middle country | Raja |
Pottery
Various types of pottery known:
(a) Black and Red ware
(b) Black Slipped ware
c) Plain Grey ware
(d) Red ware
-Red ware was most popular.
-However, the most distinctive type of pottery was Painted Grey Ware.
Aranyakas
-There were some sages dwelling in the forests who explained the Vedic scriptures to their pupils in the form of Aranyakas (Aranyaka means belonging to the forest) and they came to be known as “forest texts”. -They explain metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice. -They are the forest books and were taught in the forests due to their magical powers. -They form the concluding part of Brahmanas.
Brahmanas
-The Brahmanas are the prose commentaries on various Vedic hymns. -They explain the Vedas in an orthodox way. -They explain the hidden meaning behind thehymns. -They are ritualistic by nature. -They are expressive of the cause (hetu), etymology (nirvachana), censure ninda), dount (samshaya) and injunction (vidhi).
Social Organisation
-Society in the Later Vedic Age came became increasingly complex and came to be divided into four Varnas - Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.
Brahamanas: The growing cult of sacrifice enormously added to the power of Brahmanas, who performed various rituals and sacrifices for their clients. In the beginning, they were merely one of the sixteen classes of priests, but later on they overshadowed others.
Kshatriyas: They constituted the warrior class. Majority of the rulers belonged to this class.
Vaisyas: They were the agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders, artisans and metal workers, which formed the bulk of population. In some texts, the Kshatriyas are represented as living on the tributes collected from the Vaisyas.
Sudras: They were the lowest in social hierarchy and were meant to serve the upper three varnas.
-The upper three varnas were known as the Dvijas (twice born). -The upper three varnas were entitled to ‘upanayana’ or investiture with the sacred thread. -Education began with upanayana ceremony. -Sometimes the girls were also initiated. -The age of upanayana was 8 years for Brahamana, 11 for Kshatriya, and 12 for Vaisyas. - Certain sections of artisans such as Rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed high status and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. -In Later vedic Age, polygamy was prevalent and there were instances of child-marriage. -The term Nagara appears for the first time in the Later Vedic Age, showing faint beginnings of town life.
Vedic Literature
- The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word Veda meaning, to know or knowledge par excellence. -Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing), which is distinct from
Smriti (based on memory).
-Four Vedas and their Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads form a class of literature known as Sruti.
Rig Veda
-It is divided into 10 Books or Mandalas. Books II to VII are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and X seem to be later additions. -A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families. - Written between 1700-1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab. -Books II to VII are earliest and are also called as family books. -They are attributed to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudeva,Bhardwaj, Vashishtha, Kanva and Angiras. -The IX Mandala is dedicated exclusively to Soma. -The X Mandala contains the famous Purushsukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas.
Yajur Veda
-A ritualistic Veda. -It is divided into Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. -Atharvaveda mentions beliefs and practices of non-Aryans. -In Atharvaveda, Sabha and Samiti are described as uterine sisters – the two daughters of Prajapati. -Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.
Sama Veda
-Sam Veda derives its roots from Saman, which means a melody. - A collection of melodies. -A collection of 1603 hymns. -Except 99, all others were derived from Rig Veda.
Atharva Veda
-A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 Kandas. -It is the latest Veda. -Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula. -It contains charms and spells to ward-off evil and disease. -Its content throws light on the practices of non-Aryans.
The Upanishads
-The term Upanishada indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher. -They consisted of discussions on several problems such as the creation of the universe, the nature of God, the origin of mankind etc. -They are anti-ritualistic and define the doctrine of Karma (Action), Atman (Soul) and Gad (Brahma). -They are spiritual and philosophical in nature. -They are called the Vedanta or the end of Vedas. -They advocate Jnana Marga and are anti-ritualistic in nature. -There are 108 Upanishads. -Generally, the period from 800 to 500 BC is known as the period of Upanishads. -The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Upanishads belong to Rig Veda. -Chhandogya and Kena Upanishad belong to Sama Veda. –Taittiriya, Katha and Svetasvatara Upanishad belong to the Krishna Yajur Veda. -Brihadaranyaka and Isa belong to the Shukla Yajur Veda. -Prasna, Mundaka and Mundukya belong to the Atharva Veda.
Ashramas
-The ashrama system is found mentioned for the first time in the Aitareya Brahmana.
-Meant mainly for regulating the life of the male members of the higher castes, they consisted of four stages:
(a) Brahmacharin or student life;
(b) Grihastha or life of the householder;
(c)Vanaprastha or partial retirement and
(d)Sanyasin or complete retirement (ascetic life).
-Full recognition of the fourth stage was done only in the post-Vedic period.
Kalpa Sutras
-These are the treatises dealing with Vedic rituals on one hand, and with customary law on the other. -They are written in a laboriously compressed style, sometimes approaching the structure of algebraic formulas, unintelligible without the help of authoritative commentaries. -With a view to conveying to the future generations the ancient and contemporary literature, the Aryan sages invented a special concise method called the Sutra style. -Thus the massive Vedic texts were condensed into short,terse formulae, which could be easily remembered and transmitted orally - from father to son or from Guru to Shisya. -Most of the Vedic literature was handed down orally in this manner. -The Sutra literature is divided into three classes: (a) Srauta Sutras -dealing with large public sacrifices. (b) Griha Sutras: dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage etc.
(c)Dharma Sutras - explain social and local customs, which later on became the basis of Manu Smriti.
Dharma-Shastras
-Dharma-Shastras are the later Vedic Age or Epic Age treatises on ethical and social philosophy. -They deal systematically with the proper conduct of life and describe social, ethical and religious obligations. -The Dharma-Shastras are, ill fact, another name for Smritis, which are the law books, written in the sloka metre. -The chief among them are the Manav Dharma Shastra, the Vishnu Dharma Shastra, the Yajnavalkya Smriti and the Narad Smriti. -Manav Dharma Shastra or Mann Smriti is the oldest and the most famous. -Its author Manu is supposed to be the first king and the first law-giver. -Later on, some minor Smritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were compiled.
-These books are not merely accounts of civil and criminal laws of the time but they also cover all aspects of the daily life of the individual. –They throw considerable light on the social and political life of the age -the caste system, Ashramas of life, economic conditions as also state of professions, arts and crafts, architecture and the working of administration.
Vedangas
In order to understand the Vedic Literature, it was necessary to learn-Vedangas or the limbs of Vedas. These are treatises on science and arts. They are:
a. Shiksha (Phonetics)
b. Kalpa (Ritual)
c. Vyakarana (Grammar)
d. Chhand (Metrics)
e. Nirukta (Etymology)
I. Jyotisha (Astronomy)
-Yaska’s Nirukta (5th century BC) is the oldest Indian linguistic text.
-Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4thCentury BC) on Vyakaran.
Upvedas
-There were four Upvedas-
| Ayurveda | dealing with medicine |
| Dhanurveda | dealing with the art of the warfare |
| Gandharvaveda | dealing with music |
| Shilpaveda | dealing with art and Literature |
Epics
-Mahabharata is older compared to Ramayana and possibly reflects the state of affairs from 10th Century BC to 4th Century AD.
-Originally Mahabharata consisted of 8800 verses and was called ‘Jayasamhita’.
-These were raised to 24000 and came to be known as Bharata. The final compilation brought the number of verses to 100,000 and came to be known as Mahabharata.
-The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses which were raised to 12000 and finally to 24000
-Composition of Ramayana started in 5th century BC. It passed through several stages and attained its present form as late as 12th century AD.
Six System of Philosophy
Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism
| By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as follows:
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Later Vedic Religion
-Towards the end of the Vedic Age, a section of society began to resent priestly domination.
-The Upanishads criticised the cult of rituals and sacrifices and laid stress on Right Belief and Right Knowledge.
-They emphasised that knowledge of self (Atman) should be acquired and relation of Atman with Brahma (God) should be properly understood.
-Deeds of one life affected the next. This gave the theory of Karma.
-The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti
1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.
The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-
- The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
- Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
- the Sutra period.
These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.
Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.
| Vedas and their Brahmanas | ||
| 1. | Rigveda | Aitereya and Kaushitaki |
| 2. | Samaveda | Tandya and Jaiminiya |
| 3. | Yajurveda | Tattiriya and Satpatha |
| 4. | Atharvaveda | Gopatha |
The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.
| Aranyaka |
|
It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
| Upanishada |
|
2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-
- The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
- The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
- Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
- Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
| The Eighteen Puranas | |||
| 1 | Brahma Purana | 2 | Vishnu Purana |
| 3 | Shiva Purana | 4 | Padma Purana |
| 5 | Shrimad Bhagwat Purana | 6 | Agni Purana |
| 7 | Narad Purana | 8 | Markandey Purana |
| 9 | Bhavishya Purana | 10 | Ling Purana |
| 11 | Varah Purana | 12 | Vaman Purana |
| 13 | Brahm Vaivertya Purana | 14 | Shanda Purana |
| 15 | Surya Purana | 16 | Matsya Purana |
| 17 | Garuda Purana | 18 | Brahmand Purana |
- Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
- Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
- Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
- Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'
| Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda | |
| Rig Vedic Name | New Name |
| Gomati | Gomal |
| Krumi | Kurram |
| Kubha | Kabul |
| Suvastu | Swat |
| Sindhu | Indus |
| Drishadvari | Ghaghar/Chitang |
| Satudri | Satluj |
| Vipas | Beas |
| Parushni | Ravi |
| Asikni | Chenab |
| Vitasta | Jhelum |
| Rig Vedic Gods | |
| Indra | He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam |
| Agni | He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him. |
| Varuna | He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water. |
| Soma | He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma. |
| Yama | He was the guardian of the world of dead. |
| Surya | Similar to that of the Greek God Helios |
| Savitri | The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri |
| Pusan | Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle. |
| Vishnu | A relatively minor God at that time. |
| Vayu | Wind God |
| Dyaus | Father of Heaven |
| Aditi | Goddess of Eternity |
| Maruts | Storm Spirits |
| Gandharvas | Divine Musicians |
| Ashvins | Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art |
| Ribhus | Gnomes |
| Apsaras | Mistresses of Gods |
| Rudra | An archer of God, whose anger brought disease |
| Vishvadeva | Intermediate Deities |
| Aranyani | Goddess of Forest |
| Usha | Goddess of Dawn |
| Prithvi | Goddess of Earth |
| Important Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period | |
| Purohita | Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa |
| Senani | Supreme Commander of army |
| Vrajapati | Officer-in-Charge of pasture land |
| Jivagribha | Police Officer |
| Spasas/Dutas | Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers |
| Gramani | Head of the village |
| Kulapati | Head of the family |
| Madhyamasi | Mediator on disputes |
| Bhagadugha | Revenue collector |
| Sangrahitri | Treasurer |
| Mahishi | Chief Queen |
| Suta | Charioteer and court minstrel |
| Govikartana | Keeper of games and forests |
| Palagala | Messenger |
| Kshatri | Chamberlain |
| Akshavapa | Accountant |
| Sthapati | Chief Justice |
| Takshan | Carpenter |
very helpful... thanks tushar
ReplyDeleteVery effective to understand the vedic civilization. Thankssss
ReplyDeleteVery effective to understand the vedic civilization. Thankssss
ReplyDelete