9. GUPTA EMPIRE
The Imperial Guptas Ashoka’s death left a vacuum in India for the next 600 years, during which, several foreign tribes overran India.
With the ascent of the Gupta power, the northern States were merged into a single empire.
This national revival yielded an excellent administration and trade, all-round development with prevailing order and peace. The tax-burden was low compared to the Mauryan rule and the State provided for safe roads for trade. The period saw the revival of religion, Sanskrit literature, art and architecture too.
1. After the Mauryas, the two main powers were the Satavahanas in the Deccan and the Kushanas in the north. They carried on brisk trade with the Roman empire. These powers were replaced in the middle of the 3rd century A.D. by the Guptas.
The Guptas were Vaishyas by caste and followed Vaishnavism.
2. The main centres of Gupta activity were Magadha (Pataliputra), Prayag (Allahabad), Ujjain (M.P., considered as their second capital), Saket (Ayodhya, U.P.), and Sarnath (Benaras, Varanasi, U.P.).
3. Sri Gupta and his son Ghatotkacha Gupta were the first definite rulers of this dynasty, who also used the term ‘Maharaja’. However, no definite place is assigned to them over which they ruled.
4. Chandragupta-I is considered “real founder”. He started the Gupta Era (320 A.D.). His marriage alliance with the Licchavi (North Bihar) princess Kumaradevi enhanced his status and he ruled over Oudh, Magadh and Prayag.
5. Samudra Gupta’s campaigns have been mentioned by his court poet Harisena in the Prayag Prasasti, which is a valuable source of information for the various States, tribes and their rulers. His victory over the Nagas, Hunas, Vakatakas, etc gave him the title of “Indian Napoleon” (for his conquests), especially the Vakataka ruler Pravarasena (of Berar, Deccan) and Tamralipti (Bengal).
6. The Guptas were secular rulers and offered religious freedom to the society.
7. Chandra Gupta-II (“Vikramaditya”) defeated his elder brother Ramagupta and the Saka chief Basana, because Ramagupta had agreed to offer his wife
Dhruvadevi to save the kingdom from Basana. To strengthen his position further, he married his daughter Prabhadevi, by his wife Kuber Naga, to the Vakataka king Rudrasena II. The Vakatakas helped him to end the power of the Sakas of Western India.
8. Vikramaditya is identified with king Chandra of the iron pillar inscription near Qutab Minar, Delhi.
9. The reign of Vikramaditya also saw the visit of the Chinese monk Fahien, who wanted to secure some copies of Buddhist manuscripts from India.
10. Skanda Gupta is famous for saving the empire from the Huna tribe, which had overran Asia and Europe. They suffered a terrible defeat in India.
11. Skanda Gupta appointed Parnadatta as governor to the Sakas at Saurashtra. The famous Junagarh rock inscription in Girnar hills, Kathiawar, refer to the repair of the embankment of the Sudarshan Lake by Parnadatta and his son Chakrapalita.
12. The last important Gupta ruler was Vishnu Gupta.
13. Archaeological sources of Gupta history are available as “prasastis” (charters recording land grants, etc). They are called Tamra sasanas or Tamrapatras (copper plates).
14. Gupta coins were first issued by Samudra Gupta, as the golden “Dinara”. He also issued Chandragupta and Kumaradevi type coins to commemorate his father’s marriage to the Licchavi princess.
15. The first silver coins were issued by Chandragupta- II, on imitation of the western Satraps. Copper coins were also issued.
16. Brahmanical faith,which had been eclipsed for long by the new sects of Buddhism and Jainism, achieved immense splendour under the Vaishnavite Guptas, who also encouraged to revive use of Sanskrit.
17. Devi worship in various forms achieved importance during Gupta period.
Lakshmi was worshipped as consort to Vishnu and Parvati to Shiva.
18. Emergence of Bhakti cult, stressing on worship, devotion and love towards a personal God, gained importance during the Gupta period.
19. Literature and intellectual progress also manifested unparalleled progress.
Sanskrit was honoured as the State language.
20. Some important scholars/works of the period are:
( a ) Vishnusharma— wrote Panchatantra, a collection of moral stories.
(b) Harisena—author of Prayag (Allahabad) prasasti (inscription)—gives account of Samudragupta’s campaigns.
(c) Vishakhadutta— wrote Mudra Rakshas (on Mauryas and Nandas) and
Devichandragupta (on Chandragupta-II and Dhruva Devi).
(d) Shudraka—wrote Mricchakatika (a drama on a Brahmin merchant Charudutt and a courtesan Vasantsena, portrays city life).
(e) Bharavi—epic poem Kirtarjuneya (Arjuna and the disguised hunter Shiva).
(f) Dandin—Dasaku-maracharita (stories of 10 princes).
(g) Subandhu—Vasavdatta (story of prince Kandarpketu and princess Vasavdatta).
(h) Banabhatta—a later date writer—wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari—he was court poet of Harsha Vardhana.
(i) Amarsimha—a lexicographer— he wrote Amarakosa, he listed various metals and alloys.
(j) Kamandaka—Nitisara (on Chandragupta-I’s polity and administration)—is parallel to Kautilya’s Arthasastra.
(k) Puranas—religious literature was made more appealing. Puranas were finally written down.
(l) Kalidasa—greatest literary scholar—wrote the dramas Abhijnanasakuntalam (Shakuntala), Vikramorvasiya, Malvikagnimitra; The epics Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava; The poetries Meghaduta and Ritusamhara.
21. Nalanda (Rajagriha, Bihar) was founded by Kumaragupta (A.D. 450) and was famous for its tests. There was free education. It had 10,000 students, 1,500 teachers and 300 classrooms, a big three-storeyed library. Huen Tsang who came later, during Harsha, studied here for five years.
Itsing (A.D. 675) records a donation by Sri Gupta, for the University.
22. Guptas started using bricks for temples (E.g. Bhitargaon temple, Kanpur). The Dasavatara temple, dedicated to Vishnu, at Deogarh, Jhansi shows a transitory State from flat roof temples to the shikhara style.
23. In sculpture, purely indigenous patterns were adopted—instead of the
Kushana period Buddha with shaven head, we have the Buddha with curly hair now, and transparent drapery was used along with various mudras (postures). The main centres were Sarnath (Benaras), Mathura, Pataliputra (Patna).
24. Some famous sculptures of Gupta period are:
—The seated or preaching Buddha, giving his first sermon, discovered in sandstone, at Varanasi.
—The standing Buddha, at Mathura, in red sandstone.
—The great boar—as Vishnu’s incarnation—Udaigiri caves.
25. The art of painting reached its zenith during the Gupta period and is manifested at Bagh caves (Gwalior, M.P.) and Ajanta caves (Maharashtra).
26. Aryabhatta—mathematician and astronomer of Gupta period—wrote Aryabhattiya and Surya Siddhanta.
He explained the eclipses, shape of earth, its rotation and revolution and gave important results in maths too.
27. Brahmagupta—of Ujjain—had an observatory.
28. Varahmihir wrote Jyotishsastra and Pancha siddhantika on astronomy.
29. Vagabhatta—Physician— wrote Astangasangraha.
30. The central administrative system of the Gupta era comprised the
-Mantri/Sachiv (modern Chief Minister),
-Bhatasvapati (commander of infantry and cavalry),
-Kataka (commander of elephants),
-Dandapasadhikaran (police chief),
- Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas (provincial heads).
31. Each province was called bhukti and was under such officials as uparikas, bhojikas, goptas, rajasthaniyas, etc.
32. The provinces were divided into vishyas, under charge of Vishyapatis. The lowest division (village) was under the gramika (village headman).
33. Land was properly classified into kshetra (cultivable), khila (wasteland), donations for Brahmins (agrahara grants), donations for religious purposes (Devagrahara land grants) and so on.
34. The land revenue system was put in charge of Dhruvadhikaranika. The pustapala was an officer especially appointed to record various land transactions.
35. The receivers of land grants had the right to enjoy land revenue from the farmers. They could even punish and try thieves. Thus, there was serfdom (forced work) and oppression of the peasantry.
36. A number of taxes had to be paid to the king.
These were:
Bhaga (1/6th of produce).
Bhoga (taxes in kind fruits, wood, flowers, etc.).
Kara (periodic tax on farmers).
Uparikara (extra taxes).
Udianga (probably water tax).
Sulka (modern customs tax).
Klipta and Upaklipta (purchase and sales taxes).
37. There were two classes of merchants—settled (sresthi) and caravan traders (Sarthavaha). The group of merchants called as “puga” constituted the advisory council in cities. Its president was the Nagarsresthi.
Town mayor was called Purupala.
38. The Guptas spread Indian culture to the S.E. Asian countries, especially Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism.
39. The Srenis (traders unions or guilds) had immense powers. Not only did they perform economic functions but also judicial and executive ones. Some of them even issued seals and coins and had their own militia (called Srenibala, in the Kalachuri inscriptions).
40. Narada and Brihaspati smritis lay down the rules for merchants. The normal rate of interest was 15% per annum.
41. The most important metal of the Gupta age was iron.
42. The blacksmith acquired the second most important place in the village economy. The iron pillar (of Chandra Gupta-II) is a fine example of iron workers of Gupta period.
43. The term golden age can be applied mainly for the economically upper classes, and that too in Northern India only. Though art and architecture flourished, it was confined as a “State art”. There was flourishing trade with the southeast, but, on the whole, there was decline of trade centres and towns. Sanskrit literature, undoubtedly, made immense progress, but it was more of a state language, limited to the learned ones.
44. The caste-system became rigid during this period. Manu, for instance, had put several restrictions on the woman and the shudras.
In no way was the taxburden on the common man low. The flourishing money—economy during their predecessors (Kushanas and Satvahanas)—also slowly broke down. Fahien mentions use of “cowries” (shells) as the “common medium of exchange”, indicating shortage of coins.
THE GUPTA EMPIRE
Overview
The Gupta Empire. Territories added by the emperors and the Hun invasions that ultimately destroyed the empire
- The Gupta Empire c.320 CE to c. 550 CE covered much of the Indian subcontinent.
- It was founded in c.320 CE by Sri Gupta.
- Important rulers of the Gupta empire were Chandra Gupta I, Samudra Gupta and Chandra Gupta II.
- The Gupta period is known as the Golden Age of India due to scientific and artistic achievements made possible by the sustained peace and prosperity.
- The Gupta Empire is also known for the poet Kalidasa, the writing of the Puranas and the astronomers Varahamihira and Aryabhata.
- The Empire collapsed in the 6th century CE following sustained invasions of Huns from Central Asia.
- The Chinese travellers Fa Hsien and Yijing visited India during the reign of the Guptas.
IMPORTANT GUPTA EMPERORS
- Chandra Gupta I
- The Gupta dynasty first rose to eminence under Chandra Gupta I.
- He ruled c. 319 CE – c. 335 CE.
- Chandra Gupta rose to prominence with his marriage to Kumaradevi, a Licchhavi princess (who were the main power in Magadha)
- Chandra Gupta established a realm stretching from Pataliputra to Prayaga (Allahabad).
- The Gupta Era, which commenced on 26 Feb 320 CE is attributed to the accession of Chandra Gupta I
- Samudra Gupta
- Samudra Gupta succeeded his father Chandra Gupta I.
- He ruled c 335 CE – 380 CE.
- His kingdom stretched from the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada in the south and the Brahmaputra in the east to the Yamuna in the west.
- Samudra Gupta is known as the Napoleon of India. He is considered to be the one of the greatest military geniuses in Indian history.
- Samudra Gupta granted permission to the Ceylon king Meghavarman to build a Buddhist monastery in Bodh Gaya.
- Samudra Gupta performed the Ashvamedha Yaga to underline the importance of his conquests.
- The Samudra Gupta Prashasti, inscribed on the Asoka Pillar, was authored by Harisena. It is an important source of information regarding his reign.
- Important scholars at his court were Harisena, Vasubandu and Asanga.
- Chandra Gupta II
- Chandra Gupta II succeeded the Gupta throne after his father Samudra Gupta.
- He ruled 380 CE – 413 CE.
- Chandra Gupta expanded the empire westwards by defeating the Western Satraps (Sakas).
- The Gupta Empire achieved its greatest extent under Chandra Gupta II, stretching up to the Indus in the west.
- The court of Chandra Gupta II was graced by the Navaratnas – a group of nine literary experts, including Kalidasa and Varahamira.
- The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien visited India during the reign of Chandra Gupta II
- Chandra Gupta II is also known as Vikramaditya.
- The Vikram-Samvat calendar marks the coronation of Chandra Gupta II.
- The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar (Delhi) was erected by Kumara Gupta, in memory of Chandra Gupta II. Made of 98% wrought iron, it has stood more than 1600 years without rusting or decomposing.
SOCIETY IN THE GUPTA EMPIRE
- The division of society into the four classes was formalized
- However, marriage rules were elastic
- There were multiple types of marriages
- Brahma marriage: a duly dowreyed girl given in marriage to a man of the same class
- Prajapatya marriage: marriage without dowry
- Arsa marriage: token price of a cow and bull is given instead of dowry
- Daiva marriage: girl given to priest in lieu of his fees
- Asura marriage: marriage by purchase
- Rakshasa marriage: marriage by capture
- Paisacha marriage: marriage by abduction
- Gandharva marriage: love marriage
CULTURAL LEGACY OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE
The iron pillar at Delhi erected by Chandra Gupta II has defied corrosion for over 1600 years
- Aryabhata came up with the concept of zero, and postulated that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and determined the cause of eclipses
- The works of Kalidasa marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature
- Chess originated in the Gupta period
- Indian numerals, the world’s first base 10 numeral system, originated in the Gupta Empire
- The Kama Sutra was written by Vatsayana in the Gupta period
- Varahamihira postulated that moon revolves around the sun
About Aryabhata
- Arybhata (476-550 CE) was the first in a line of great mathematicians-astronomers in India
- His famous works are the Arbhatiyam and the Arya-Siddhanta
- His discoveries in mathematics include
- Value and irrationality of Pi
- Area of a triangle, concept of sine
- Sum of series
- Intermediate equations
- His discoveries relating to astronomy include
- Postulated Heliocentrism i.e. planets revolve around the Sun
- Calculated sidereal rotation (24 hrs) and sidereal year (365 days)
- Computed earth’s circumference
- Discovered cause of eclipses
| Person | Author of | Famous for |
| Dhanvantari | One of the world’s first surgeons Discovered antiseptic properties of turmeric and preservative properties of salt Pioneer of plastic surgery | |
| Kshapanak | ||
| Amarasimha | Amara-Kosha | Thesaurus of Sanskrit |
| Shanka | ||
| Vetal Bhatt | ||
| Ghat Karpar | ||
| Varahamihira | Pancha-Siddhantika Brihat-Samhita | Postulated that the moon revolves around the Sun |
| Kalidasa | Three plays, four poems including Abhijanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa | One of the most famous literary figures in Sanskrit |
- Trade and Commerce in the pre- Gupta and Gupta period
1. Metallurgy is as old as pre-historic times. Mining of metals was known even in pre-Vedic period and during the Harappa period various metals like copper, lead, silver were in use.
2. During Vedic period, metal (ayas) was chiefly of two kinds—krishna ayas (black metal or iron) used during later Vedic period and loh ayas (copper).
3. The Jatakas refer to eighteen important handicrafts and industries.
4. The Vaishyas developed institutions like Sreni, Nigama and Puga to regulate trade and avoid intrusion by other varnas and develop monopoly.
5. Proper rules of conduct of trade were laid by the head of trade guilds, known as Sarthavaha or Srenipramukha. The rules were called Samay and Srenidharma.
6. Taxila, Pushkalavati, Kapisa and Vidisha prospered as trade centres, under the Indo-Greek rulers.
7. Kautilya asked the king to develop measures to stop obstruction of the trade routes by his favourite men (vallabhas).Frontier guards (Antapalas) were also appointed.
8. The close contacts between the commercial classes and the king’s court is very clear from the rules of the settlement layout of the historic city of Patliputra.Here, people lived in various parts,according to their social status.
9. Kautilya looked upon artisans and traders as big thieves and held them under suspect. He demanded strict control over them, as also with the often indisciplined frontier guards (antapalas).
10. Guilds of merchants were properly registered and even served as banks.
11. During Mauryas, most important trade route was from Taxila to Patliputra.
12. Ships in ancient period were usually of the two-masted type. In the 2nd century A.D., a regular sea-route was in operation for the quest for gold (swarna).
13. Monsoons (Arabic: Mausam) were discovered by Hippalus (Greek captain) and this discovery in 45 A.D. that monsoons could sail ships from Alexandria to Western India in just a 40-days period, tremendously increased the Roman seatrade, due to shortening of trade-route.Muziris (Cranganore, Kerala) and Puhar (in Cholamandalam) were major sea-ports and foreign settlements.
14. Among land-routes, the silk-route was very often in use till Kushan period.
Later period saw it becomming unsafe, due to robbers.
15. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea is a travellers’ handbook (Erythrean Sea—Red sea). It mentions more than 20 trade ports like: Barygaza (Broach), Suppara (Soparal), Kalliena (Kalyana), Muziris (Pondicherry), Soptama (Madras), Puhar (Orissa), Masalia (Masulipatnam).
16. The important exports from India were: Fine textiles from Varanasi, Malabathrum (spicy leaves) from Tamralipti (Tamluk, R. Ganges, Bengal), muslins (Pondicherry), pepper (Muziris), ivory (Puhar, Orissa).
17. Pepper was a very valuable export till 13th century A.D. Marco Polo (Italy) mentions that a ship was measured by the number of pepper baskets contained in it.
18. Trade suffered a setback in 3rd century A.D. But in the 4th century A.D., silk trade increased and silk was brought within reach of the common man. The decline in the westward trade towards the 2nd-3rd century A.D. was later compensated for by the prospering trade now developed with the south-east Asian States like the Suvarnabhumi, Kambuja (Kampuchea), Champa (Annam).
19. During Guptas, there was no material change in the previous traderoutes, trade practices, organisation, currency system, etc. The one note-worthy change was a decline in the Roman trade and the three major ports of Muziris, Arikamedu and Kaveripattinam.
20. In his plays, Kalidas potraits a good view of the town markets and trade transactions. The internal trade now expanded to several inland trade centres.
21. Roman emperor Aurelian declared Indian silk to be its worth in gold. Indians acted as intermediaries to the Chinese silk trade and the Western States.
22. Among spices, pepper always held the first place and was declared passion of the Yavanas (Romans).
23. The demand for Roman goods was smaller than that of Indian goods abroad and it suffered an adverse trade balance of trade. To make up this balance, the Romans supplied gold and silver coins to India. This ever-increasing drain of wealth was once complained by the emperor Tiberious (22 A.D.). The author Pliny also laments such losses.
24. The Kushanas remoulded the Roman coins so that they could be used as currency.
25. Among imports, there were singing boys, virgins for the rulers’ harem, slaves and valuable corals (Mediterranean Red Variety), dates, Italian vases and wines, sweet clovers, glass, tin (Spain), emeralds, etc.
26. The Divyavadana refers to the science of testing gems. The merchants’ sons were trained in 64 Angavidyas or finearts, according to Vatsyayana.
27. Rome, the Chief importer of Indian muslin, once banned it, due to the rising loss of morals of its females.
28. Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati gave specific instructions towards the rights and duties of guild members, in their smritis. Gupta sites of Basarh (Vaisali) and Bhita (Allahabad) bear the names Nigama and Sreni Sarthavaha Kulika Nigama at Vaisali.
29. India obtained brass, lead and gold from foreigners, whereas Indian iron and steel (saikya ayas) was very advanced in quality and was exported.
30. Milindpanho mentions 75 trades, 60 related to crafts, 8 to metals.
31. Charaksamhita (on Indian traditional medicine and surgery) recommends the use of saikya ayas for operations.
32. Nasik cave inscription tells that srenis often acted as law providers also.
(Sresthis, are now called as Seths, Settis in South India and also Chettiyars).
33. Rate of interest fluctuated greatly, but was usually near 15% (higher for loans for sea-trade).
34. The common coins were: Nishka and Pala of Gold, Shatmana of silver, Kakini of copper and brass. The most common coin Karshapana was made of various metals.
35. The major source of revenue for Guptas was land revenue.
36. Textiles formed a major industry in this period. Rock cutting also evolved as another important occupation due to the rapid rise in use of statues for prayers.
37. India imported horses from Arabia, Iran and Bactria.
38. Ujjain was the most flourishing trade centre in and around the Gupta period.
Agrarian Structure in Post-Guptaperiod
39. A lot of confusion about agrarian structure of post-Gupta period exists, due to the contradictory picture provided by several Smriti writers and other sources.
40. There were several land grants, both secular and religious in nature. The secular grants were mostly towards the high officials while religious grants were towards the Brahmins and the temples.
41. The practice of land grants finally developed feudalism. The peasant, who was initially free was now under severe burden. There were several intermediate classes of land owners.
42. There was an increase in the forced labour, Vishti, due to the emergence of a “landed aristocratic class”.
43. The peasants were mostly sudras. In fact, peasants were thought of as sudras.
44. All land was supposed to be under the State ownership, but in practice individuals were owners of land.
45. Various categories of ownerships existed, like Sakta (land owned by individuals), Prakrsta (tilled by certain individuals), Kaustambakshetra (fields owned by cultivators themselves).
46. In a few land grants, villages are described as also carrying with them the right towards all traders living in it. The grants were rent-free.
47. Aprada, Sasana, Chaturvaiya-grama, Brahmadeya, etc are names of land grants. The rights were hereditary.
48. The Kashmiri ruler Shankaravarman used to usurp lands from grant holders.
49. During Harsha, cash payments were usually for military services only.
50. Agrahara land was granted only to brahmins.
Social Changes
51. Rig Vedic society was chiefly pastoral and semi-nomadic. Their chief wealth was the gau (cow) and a wealthy person was called gomat, the king or head was called gopati or gopa.
52. Vedic society in early period had no such serving class like the shudras.
53. Early literature of the Buddhists provides a picture of a settled agricultural economy and an emerging commerce in urban centres.
54. Mauryas saw a tremendous increase in trade.
55. The Gupta period saw changes in agrarian structure due to system of land grants.
56. Varna Samkara denotes mixed castes, considered ritually impure, included tribes or descendants of intercaste marriages.
57. A child born out of brahmin and vaishya combination was called ambastha and that of brahmin and sudra as nisada, vaishya and sudra as ugra, brahmin and sudra as parsava.
58. In the later vedic period, there were as many as 17 kinds of priests looking into various sacrifices. The Brahmin was one such priest, who gradually surpassed them and became their representative.
59. Besides the four varnas, there was a Panchamvarna (5th varna), comprising the untouchables.
60. The principal tax-payers were the vaishyas.
61. The social transformation of vaishya and sudras was under crisis in the 3rd century A.D., due to refusal to stick to their occupations and pay taxes. The practice of land grants was started by a few rulers to relax the tax collections, now entrusted to grant holders.
62. The term Rajanya, existing in literary sources as well as in coins, signifies kshatriyas.
63. In the Buddhist texts, the social order is denoted as: kshatriya, brahmin, vaishya and sudra (i.e. brahmins at 2nd place, not first). Vaishyas are called grahapatis or householders.
64. The samskaras were important religious sacraments for the human body.
They are generally 16 in number.
65. There are eight forms of marriage, according to the Dharmasastras. The approved ones are: Brahma, Prajapatya, Daiva and Arsa. Divorce was severely condemned.The unapproved ones were: asura, paisacha, rakshasa and andharva (love marriage). Re-marriage was allowed by the Brahmanical law givers as well as by Kautilya.
66. Polygamy was generally practiced by the socially upper classes.
67. Intercaste marriages were generally in Anuloma system (marriage of high caste male with low caste female).
68. There were several mixed caste also, arising out of tribals and foreigners.
69. The asura form of marriage (marriage by purchase) was quite prevalent, even though not approved by the shastras.
70. The position of women declined during the pre-Gupta and Gupta times and further more in later periods.
71. The use of veils (purdah) by women can be noticed near Harsha’s times (his sister Rajyasri used it) and increased during the advent of Muslims.
72. Some smritis encourage the practice of sati. The first definite historical incident of sati is recorded in 510 A.D., in the case of wife of Goparaja (a general of Bhanu Gupta). It existed mostly in Deccan and Central India.
73. Smritis recommend an austere life for widows. The skanda purana advocates the shaving of heads of widows.
74. During post-Gupta period, Vaishnava Dharma was prevalent in India.
Lalitaditya of Kashmir, Sens of Bengal, Chandels and Chauhans were mostly Vaishnavites. However, the epicentre of Vaisnavism was the Tamil region.
75. Alwar saints brought the worship of Vishnu to new heights, mainly in the 9th and 10th centuries. Two famous female Alwar saints were Andal and Namallalwar.
76. Among Hindus, Shaivites were most numerous. The Pala rulers of Bengal were Buddhists, but their inscriptions begin with Om Namah Shivaya.
77. Ganesha became a popular deity of the Hindus in the 10th century A.D., especially in the western States, where Ganapati cult arose and held Ganesha as higher than other deities. Ganesha Chaturthi celebrations (mentioned in Agni Purana) are believed to originate somewhere around 9-10th century A.D.
78. Huen Tsang, speaks of a flourishing Buddhist faith, even in the 7th century A.D., besides other faiths, especially in U.P., Bihar and Bengal.
79. The Kayastha caste was also born somewhere during Gupta period. They were usually scribes under State service. First mention of Kayasthas is made by Yajyavalkya. During Guptas, they existed only as a social class and later they got converted into a caste.
80. Antayajas were a class of people living outside the town, as they were considered untouchables. The synonym Chandala has also been used for them.
They were considered even lower than the sudras.
VAKATAKA DYNASTY
- The Vakataka Dynasty ruled parts of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradhesh from the third to fifth century.
- The Vakatakas are mentioned in the Puranas.
- The Vakataka Dynasty was founded by Vindhyashakti in 250 CE.
- The Dynasty had two branches: Pravapura-Nandivardhana branch and Vatsagulma branch.
- The Vakatakas patronised the building of Buddhist viharas and chaityas at the Ajanta Caves.
Important Vakataka rulers
- Vindhayashakti (250-270 CE) was the founder.
- Pravarasena I (270-330 CE) expanded the realm from Bundlekhand in the north to present Andhra Pradesh in the south.
- Harishena (475-500 CE) expanded the kingdom to include Avanti (Malwa) in the north, Kosala (Chattisgarh) in the east, Nasik in the west and Kuntala (southern Maharashtra) in the south.
- The rock cut vihara of Ajanta cave XI was built by Varahadeva, a minister of Harishena.
HARSHAVARDHANA
Overview
- Harshavardhana (540-647 CE) was a ruler who ruled northern India for 41 years.
- The Vardhana dynasty (although formally not known as such) was founded by Harshavardhana’s father, Prabhakar Vardhana.
- Harshavardhana was crowned king in 606 CE, at the age of 16.
- Harshavardhna rule is important for the stability it brought to northern India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century.
- The Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, is a biography of emperor Harsha. The Harshacharita was the first composition by Bana and the first historical work in Sanskrit.
- After Harsha’s death in 647 CE, without any heirs, his empire died with him.
Harsha’s rule
- Harsha established his capital at Kanauj.
- The extent of Harsha’s territory included Gujarat in the west, Punjab in the northwest, Magadha in the east and the river Narmada in the south.
- Harsha was prevented from conquering south of Narmada by Chalukya king Pulakesi II, who defeated Harsha’s army in 620 CE.
- Harsha converted to Buddhism.
- Harsha was the author of the Sankrit plays Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika.
- Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited Harsha’s kingdom in 636 CE and is a valuable source of information.
- Harsha established the fist diplomatic relations between China and India, by sending a mission in 641 CE.
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