Friday, September 30, 2011

10.ANCIENT INDIA: SOURCES, LITERATURE AND SCIENCE


10.ANCIENT INDIA: SOURCES, LITERATURE AND SCIENCE
INFORMATION SOURCES FOR ANCIENT INDIA
Indian literary sources
Source
Author
Language
Date
Notes
Veda Samhitas
Various
Sanskrit
1st m.
BCE
Gives account of life of people in addition to philosophy, religion etc
Arthashastra
Chanakya
Sanskrit
4th c. BCE
Covers Mauryan period under Chandragupta Maurya
Treatise on statecraft, economy and military strategy
Sangam literature
Various
Tamil
c. 600 BCE – 300 CE
Primarily Dealt with everyday themes
Foreign literary sources
Source
Author
Language
Date
Notes
Indika
Megasthenes
Greek
4th c. BCE
Ambassador of Seleucus I to court of Chandragupta Maurya
Used by later writers Strabo and Arrian
Describes geography, politics, various kingdoms, caste system
Indica
Arrian
Greek
1st c. CE
Considered one of most important sources about India
Covers travel of Alexander’s officer Nearchus from India to Babylon
Covers geography, esp. Indus and Ganges
Describes social structure
Describes seven castes, physical appearance, absence of slavery
Used Indika (Megasthenes) as source
Geographica
Strabo
Greek
1st c. CE
Descriptive history of people and places all over the world
Consists of 17 volumes of material
Fa-Hien
Chinese
Around 400 CE
Travelled to India/Ceylon to obtain Buddhist scriptures
Epigraphical sources
Note that more than 55% of epigraphical inscriptions in India are in Tamil
Inscription
Location
Attributed to
(date)
Notes
Indus valley inscriptions
IVC
c. 2600 – 1900 BCE
Indus script remains undeciphered
Edicts of Asoka
All over India
Asoka
3rd c. BCE
In Praktrit, Sanskrit, Greek
Heliodorus pillar
Besnagar
(Madhya Pradesh)
c. 110 BCE
In Sanskrit (Brahmi)
Dedicated by Heliodorus to god Vasudeva
Heliodorus was the Ambassador of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to court of Sunga king Bhagabhadra
Describes relationship b/w Sungas and Indo-Greeks
Hathigumpha incription
Udayagiri
(Orissa)
Kharavela
(Kalinga)
(150 BCE)
In Prakrit (Brahmi script)
Main source of info about Kharavela
Mentions conflict with Demetrius
Mentions conflict with Uttarapatha
Rabatak inscription
Rabatak
(Afghanistan)
Kanishka
127-151 CE
In Bactrian (Greek script)
Describes Kushan dynasty
Halmidi inscription
Halmidi
(Karnataka)
c. 450 CE
Oldest inscription in Kannada (Brahmi script)
LITERATURE IN ANCIENT INDIA
Important ancient Sanskrit literature
Work
Category
Author
(date)
Notes
Mahabharata
Epic
Vyasa
Ramayana
Epic
Valmiki
Ashtadhyayi
Treatise on grammar
Panini
(5th -4th c. BCE)
One of the earliest known grammars of Sanskrit
Nirukta
Treatise on grammar
Yaksa
Mrichakatika
Play
Shudraka
(2nd c. BCE)
Set in Pataliputra
Hindi film Utsav was based on this
Karnabhara, Charudatta
Play
Bhasa
(1st BCE – 4th CE)
Bhasa wrote about 13 plays
He is considered to be one of most important Sanskrit authors (after Kalidasa)
Urubhanga
Play
Bhasa
Based on Mahabharata
Depicts story of Duryodhana after fight with Bhima
Madhyamavyayoga
Play
Bhasa
Based on the Mahabharata
Malavikagnimitram
Play
Kalidasa
(4th -5th CE)
Gupta period
Tells the story of King Agnimitra falling in love with servant girl Malavika
Agnimitra was the son and successor to Pushyamitra Sunga
Abhijanasakuntalam
Play
Kalidasa
Tells story of king Dushyanta and his marriage to Shankuntala
Considered to be Kalidasa’s most popular play
Vikramaorvasiyam
Play
Kalidasa
Story of king Pururavas in love with celestial Urvashi
Raghuvamsa
Poetry
Kalidasa
Kings of Raghu dynasty
Kumarasambhava
Poetry
Kalidasa
Story of birth of Karthikeya
Rtusamhara
Poetry
Kalidasa
Describes six seasons using context of love
Meghaduta
Poetry
Kalidasa
Story of a Yaksha sending a message to his lover through a cloud
One of Kalidasa’s most popular poems
Ratnavali
Play
Harshavardhana
(590-647 CE)
Story of king Udayana and princess Ratnavali
Contains one of the earliest references to festival Holi
Nagananda
Play
Harshavardhana
Describes prince Jimutavahana’s self-sacrifice to save serpents
Priyadarsika
Play
Harshavardhana
Kiratarjuniya
Poetry
Bharavi
Describes contest b/w Arjuna and lord Shiva
Shishupala Vadha
Poetry
Magha
Important ancient literature in Tamil
Note that Sangam literature itself contains about 2400 poems by more than 470 poets. For obvious reasons, not all of them can be listed here
Work
Category
Author
Notes
Ettuthokai
Poetry
Various
(600 BCE-
300 BCE)
Part of Sangam literature
Ettuthokai contains 8 anthologies:
Ainkurunuru, Akananuru, Purananuru, Kalittokai, Kuruntokai, Narrinai, Paripatal, Patirrupattu
Each of these anthologies in turn contain hundreds of poems by multiple authors
Deals with two themes: Akam (personal life) and Puram (war, politics)
Pathupattu
Poetry
Various
Part of Sangam literature
Pathupattu contains 10 idylls (mid length books):
Tirumurugattruppatai, Kurinjipattu, Malaipatukatam, Maturaikkanji, Mullaipattu, Netunalvatai, Pattinappalai, Perumpanatrupatai, Porunaratruppatai, Sirupanatrupatai
Deals mainly with themes of nature
Tolkappiyam
Grammar
Tolkappiyar
Earliest available work of Tamil literature
Aimperumkappiyam
Epics
Various
Collection of five large narrative epics
The five epics were: Silappadhigaram, Manimegalai, Sivaka Chintamani, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi
Specific epics described below
Silappadhigaram
Epic
Ilango Adigal
(1st c. CE)
Describes story of Kannagi in her quest to save husband Kovalan
Describes in detail life, politics, trade, settlements of Greeks etc
Story evolves in themes of three: three kingdoms, three heroes, three heroines etc
Considered one of most important ancient Tamil literature
Manimegalai
Epic
Seethalai Sathanar
(1st-2nd c. CE)
Story of Manimegalai, daughter of Kovalan
Sequel to Silappadhigaram
Sivaka Chintamani
Epic
Tirutakkatevar
Story of man who becomes king and then renounces throne
Valayapathi
Epic
Unknown
Work lost
Kundalakesi
Epic
Nagakuthanar
Original work lost, only fragments survive
Supposedly describes story of Buddhist monk Kundalakesi
Tirukkural
Ethics
Thiruvalluvar
Couplets of ethics
Contains 1330 couplets
Thirukkural remains the book translated into most number of languages in the world
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA
Work
Subject
Author
Notes
Vedanga Jyotisha
Astrology
Lagadha
(1st c. BCE)
Describes rules for tracking motion of sun and moon
Yavanajataka
Astrology
Sphujidvaja
1st-2nd c. CE)
Translated it mean “Nativity as per the Greeks”
It is a collection of astrology-related ideas borrowed from Greek world
Gives rules for building horoscopes
Surya Siddhanta
Astronomy
Establishes rules to determine motions of stellar objects
Paulisa Siddhanta
(Doctrine of Paul)
Astronomy
Based on works of Paul of Alexandria
(c. 378 CE)
Romaka Siddhanta
(Doctrine of the Romans)
Astronomy
Based on works of Rome
It is the only Indian work based on the tropical system
Vasishta Siddhanta
Astronomy
Attributed to sage Vasishta
Panchasiddhantika
Astronomy
Varahamihira
(c. 550 CE)
Work that compares five treatises on astronomy viz. Surya Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Vasishta Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta
Sulba sutras
Mathematics
Baudhayana (c. 800 BCE), Apasthamba (c. 600 BCE), Katyayana (c. 200 BCE)
Baudhayana enumerated the Pythagoras theorem. He also described square root of 2 and geometric shapes such as squares and rectangles
Apasthamba and Katyayana developed these principles further
Chandahsastra
Mathematics
Pingala
(4th-2nd c. BCE)
First known description of binary numeral system in the world
Also describes Pascal’s triangle, binomial theorem and Fibonacci numbers
Aryabhatiya
Astronomy, mathematics
Aryabhata
(c 522 CE)
Introduced decimal value notation
Describes heliocentric model of solar system
Explained lunar and solar eclipses
Gave duration of one year as 365 days 6 hrs 12 min 30 sec
Gave value of pi (3.1416)
Correctly calculated earth’s circumference as 24,835 miles
Aryabhata’s principles are still in use for fixing the Hindu calendar Panchanga
Mahabhaskariya
Mathematics, astronomy
Bhaskara I
(c. 600 – 680 CE)
Representation of numbers in positional system
Solved Wilson’s theorem and Pell equation
Brahmasputasiddhanta
Mathematics, astronomy
Brahmagupta
(c. 630 CE)
Describes solution of linear equation
Solve system of simultaneous indeterminate equations
Sum of series
Introduced the concept of zero
Formula for cyclic quadrilaterals
Rebutted the idea that moon is farther from earth than the sun


Literature
Author
Book
Bhasa
Svapanavasavdattam
Shudrak
Mrichchakatika
Amarkosh
Amarsimha
Iswara Krishna
Sankhya Karika
Vatsyana
Kama Sutra
Vishnu Gupta
Panchatantra
Narayan Pandit
Hitopdesha
Bhattin
Ravan Vadha
Bhaivi
Kiratarjunyam
Dandin
Daskumarachanta
Aryabhatta
Aryabhattyan
Vishakha Datta
Mudura Rakshasa
Indrabhuti
Nanassiddhi
Varahamihara
Panchasiddh antika, Brihad Samhita

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